Author: saqibkhan

Swift Closures

Capture values and pass behavior as first-class functions using closure expressions and trailing closure syntax.

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Closure Expressions

Closures are self-contained blocks of functionality that can be passed and stored.

Syntax:

• { (params) -> Return in statements }
• shorthand args $0, $1, and type inference.

Example

let nums = [3, 1, 2]
let sorted = nums.sorted { $0 < $1 }
let strings = sorted.map { "#\($0)" }
print(strings) // ["#1", "#2", "#3"]

This example sorts numbers using a closure with shorthand arguments and maps them to strings.

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Capturing Values

Closures capture constants and variables from the surrounding context by reference.

Syntax: func makeCounter() -> () -> Int { var n = 0; return { n += 1; return n } }

Example

func makeCounter() -> () -> Int {
  var n = 0
  return {
n += 1
return n
  }
}

let next = makeCounter()
print(next()) // 1
print(next()) // 2

The closure remembers n between calls, producing an incrementing counter.

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Trailing Closures

If the last parameter is a closure, you can use trailing closure syntax for readability.

Syntax: fn(x) { ... } instead of fn(x, closure: { ... })

Example

func repeatTimes(_ n: Int, _ work: () -> Void) {
  for _ in 0..<n { work() }
}

repeatTimes(3) {
  print("Hi")
}

Enums & Pattern Matching

Model finite sets of cases with enum, add associated values, and match using switch with patterns.

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Basic Enums

Use enum to define a type with a fixed set of cases.

Syntax: enum Direction { case north, south, east, west }

Example

enum Direction { case north, south, east, west }

let d: Direction = .east
print(d)

This example defines an enum of directions and creates a value using a short dot syntax.

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Associated Values

Attach data to each case using associated values.

Syntax: enum Result { case success(T), failure(Error) }

Example

enum Barcode {
  case upc(Int, Int, Int, Int)
  case qr(String)
}

let b1 = Barcode.upc(8, 85909, 51226, 3)
let b2 = Barcode.qr("HELLO")

This example shows a barcode which may be a UPC with four integers or a QR code with a string.

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Pattern Matching

Use switch with patterns to extract associated values.

Syntax:

• switch value { case .case(let x): ... }
• if case for single-case checks

Example

func describe(_ code: Barcode) {
  switch code {
  case .upc(let numberSystem, let manufacturer, let product, let check):
print("UPC: \(numberSystem)-\(manufacturer)-\(product)-\(check)")
  case .qr(let text):
print("QR: \(text)")
  }
}

describe(b1)
describe(b2)

This example uses pattern matching to bind associated values and print a formatted description.

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Raw Values

Provide default raw values (e.g., Int or String) and initialize from them.

Syntax:

• enum HTTPStatus: Int { case ok = 200, notFound = 404 }
• HTTPStatus(rawValue: 200)

Example

enum HTTPStatus: Int { case ok = 200, notFound = 404 }

let status = HTTPStatus(rawValue: 200)
print(status == .ok)

Swift Optionals

Represent missing values safely with optionals, and unwrap them with ??, if let, or guard let.

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What Are Optionals?

An optional is a type that can hold either a value or nil (no value).

Use ? to declare an optional, and nil-coalescing (??) or binding (if let) to safely read it.

Syntax:

• var x: String?
• x ?? "default"
• if let v = x { ... }
• guard let v = x else { return }

Example

var nickname: String? = nil
print(nickname ?? "(none)")

nickname = "Ace"
if let name = nickname {
  print(name)
}

This example prints a default using ?? and unwraps an optional safely with if let.

Tip: Use guard let inside functions to early-exit on missing values.

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Guard Let

Use guard let for early exit when required values are missing.

Example

func greet(_ input: String?) {
  guard let name = input else {
print("Missing name")
return
  }
  print("Hello, \(name)")
}

greet(nil)
greet("Swift")

Swift Functions

Define reusable code with parameters and return values; control labels, mutation with inout, defaults, and variadics.

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Defining and Calling Functions

Use func to define a function with a name, parameters, and return value.

Syntax:

• func name(param: Type) -> Return
• Call with name(param:)

Example

func greet(name: String) -> String {
  return "Hello, \(name)!"
}
print(greet(name: "Swift"))

This example defines a function named greet that takes a String parameter and returns a greeting message.

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Parameters and Return Values

Use func to define a function with multiple parameters and a return value.

Syntax:

• func name(param1: Type, param2: Type) -> Return
• Multiple params: Separate by commas; annotate types.
• Parameter labels: External names shown at call sites; use _ to omit.
• Return type: Use ->; omit for Void.

Example

func add(_ a: Int, _ b: Int) -> Int { a + b }
print(add(2, 3))

This example omits external parameter labels with _ and returns the sum as an Int.

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Inout, Default Values, Variadics

Use func to define a function with multiple parameters and a return value.

Syntax:

• func name(param: inout Type, default: Type = value)
• func name(param: Type...)

Example

func increment(_ value: inout Int, by step: Int = 1) {
  value += step
}
var x = 10
increment(&x)
print(x) // 11

func sum(_ nums: Int...) -> Int { nums.reduce(0, +) }
print(sum(1,2,3))